You mean using it as a melee weapon?
(The following is opinion, as I can't find any RAW)
I would rule that you'd get any special material and enchantments that apply to melee attacks, though the ammunition would be destroyed once you hit.
If you were using a durable arrow you'd be able to hit with it multiple times and continue to gain the special material effect and masterwork bonus, if applicable. Any enchantments would still only last for the first hit, however.
Now the question becomes can you add melee enchantments to an arrow? I'd say yes, but they'd only trigger if using it as a melee weapon. I could imagine many DMs saying no, however, on the principle that enchantments can't be added to a weapon if that application of the weapon is considered improvised.
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Would the effects of magic weapon go away after one attack with the arrow? It would most certainly be a durable arrow. Here is the rules for using arrows as melee weapons:
Arrows: An arrow used as a melee weapon is treated as
a light improvised weapon (–4 penalty on attack rolls) and
deals damage as a dagger of its size (critical multiplier ×2).
Arrows come in a leather quiver that holds 20 arrows.
Drawback: If crafted with magic (such as bane), the magic only lasts for one use of the arrow, but the nonmagical arrow can still be reused or imbued with magic again.
"One use of the arrow" seems like it applies regardless.
The spell I mean, magic weapon.
Ah, sorry.
Yes, the spell would function through the entire duration, even if you shot it from a bow. Durable arrows specify crafted enchantments.
Greater magic weapon is a little trickier. I think if you cast it on a single durable arrow and used it in melee, the enchantment would last for the duration of the spell. If you cast it on 50 durable arrows, then they fall into the "projectile" wording, and are one shot each. The tricky question is what happens if you cast it on a single durable arrow, and shot it. I'd say the enchantment should remain, because you didn't use the "projectile" version of the spell.
I don't see anything that claims you gain proficiency; only that you don't suffer penalties.
Improvised throwing weapons? Sure.
There's an oracle favored class bonus that lets you reduce the non-proficiency penalty by 1 per class level. When the penalty hits 0, you are then considered proficient.
I'm not calling it RAW, but it's something you can show your DM as circumstantial evidence that saying you are proficient when you've reduced the penalties to 0 is not unreasonable.
I like where you are going with all this, by the way. Kinda makes me want to build a guy dual wielding adamantine crowbars. mmmm.