So as the question asks: what level are artifacts appropriate.
I guess I'd like to hear when GM's have introduced artifacts into their games, as well as what various AP's and Modules do.
Additionally, maybe depending on the item (Minor vs Major, CL, abilities, alignment, etc), appropriate level's may change.
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I've yet to use artifacts, but it is important to note that there is no "appropriate" place for them. Can be cool, but more as centerpieces to a campaign than as items. A campaign centered around the scepter of ages could be special.
What williamoak said.
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I have to agree with williamoak. There's no real level they're appropriate.
On the other hand, a campaign where you need artifacts to counter a BBEG using artifacts? That's when it's a good time to employ them. Just have them the result of epic dungeon crawls.
williamoak has more or less the correct answer - there is never a level at which artifacts are automatically "appropriate". As a corollary, however, I'll note that there's also never an "inappropriate" level to introduce artifacts. Ultimately, Master of the Dark Triad is also entirely correct: artifacts' appropriateness or inappropriateness is entirely relative to the game you're playing and the artifact you're placing in it.
Want to drop a staff of the magi? You can just do it. It doesn't really matter what level, as it'll be a sudden and powerful boost to all. The higher the level the less over-all impact it would be, but there is no "cut off" point at which it becomes just another magic item.
Part of the difficulty with answering your question is the intense variation between artifacts, their powers, and how they impact the game.
In my Carrion Crown game, currently, for example, they have at least six philosopher's stones... but they also have other methods of generating wealth (which they didn't care too much about in the first place), so that really doesn't mean much to them. In fact, at their level (four) they can't even use them right now (as they require a minimum of 10 ranks in craft alchemy to utilize any of their effects).
In my Council of Thieves game, an artifact related to Savana and the Runelords showed up (Blue Hood is wearing a Blue Veil - a powerful artifact related to Pride, if I recall, allowing incredible power over illusion). This was granted at seventh level.
Why did I introduce these so early? To establish their presence. Now the PCs have a "get out of death free" card, if they need one throughout the game that, even if the PC themselves can't use, some NPC or another can.
Now, if you're looking more for an official answer, it's similar to the above, but there are game-rules that allow the PCs to gain artifacts, which can be a guesstimate/guideline for when you introduce artifacts of a certain caliber.
The alchemist has an ability called Discovery with their capstone ability being an advanced version of that: Grand Discovery at 20th level. One of their possible options for a Grand Discovery is a Philosopher's Stone. Thus, you can concluded, that by 20th level, the designers feel comfortable with allowing you to entirely destabilize the economy and/or get a free (or at least really inexpensive) true resurrection once per month.
The other place we can go to find a "guarantee" of PCs gaining artifacts is the Mythic Rules. Since (as I recall) PCs with mythic abilities kind of sort of have the ability to take on CRs of their level+their tier, this gives us some guidelines to figure out what Paizo figures is entirely appropriate.
At first tier, which is available at second level (leaving a character basically CR 3? My math may be way off.), a character can gain a Legendary Item that is quite potent (incidentally, this informs us that, by CR 3, intelligent items are considered reasonable).
Minor artifacts, however, aren't available until 3rd tier - basically CR 9. Thus, it can be concluded that by ninth level (more or less), Paizo feels comfortable allowing a PC to have a single minor artifact at their disposal - and what's more, a minor artifact that they design themselves from the ground up.
Major artifacts require 6th tier - basically CR 18. Thus by (about) 18th level, Paizo feels comfortable allowing a PC to have a single major artifact at their disposal (one that a particular PC has tailored to their own tastes).
So:
* a single intelligent item: 3rd level
* a single minor artifact: 9th level
* a single major artifact: 18th level
* numerous minor artifacts (1/month): 20th level [also, ignore the economy]
Obviously, that's not a very clear indicator of artifacts and their impact on the game across the board: as MotDT noted, a Deck of Many Things can end (or seriously derail) a campaign instantly and irrevocably really quickly, while a philosopher's stone would only destabilize the Wealth by Level rules - still potentially serious, but not really nearly so much as the DoMT. Even the artifacts available by mythic, customizable as they are, have a limited and focused list to choose from. Instead, it's a really rough guideline.
But feel free to ignore it. I did, and am entirely happy with the results. Of course, others have tried and had poor results. So approach with caution and use your best judgement.
This advice applies best to campaigns that feature High Fantasy game-play and is likely inappropriate for the rare high-level game that's more Low/Standard.
Gameplay around 11+ sustains several minor artifacts well. Using them as treasure in place of greater medium wondrous item or mid-priced wands has worked for me.
Gameplay around 16+ sustains at most a handful of major artifacts. The ramifications are just too great, even if the mechanics are not always that far beyond what a party of 9th level casters can already tap into. At this level of play, lesser artifacts in place of greater lesser items is non-escalatory, and are occasional additions of a legendary.
Honestly Paizo's Artifacts and Legends has a lot of good advice about integrating artifacts into gameplay at any level regardless of whether one want's to satisfy the farm-boy with a destined sword tropes or the monty haul style detailed above. I can not recommend it enough.
Artifacts can make great macguffins if your story needs one. I introduced a series of ancient singing bowls in a dwarven ruin that together had incredible power. I just made that power weird, unreliable, vast and strange. I also made it so that that artifact was sought-after by the dwarven people.
So in other words, I made a powerful magic device that everyone who was not the players was interested-in, and that the players would not want to keep, yet needed to finish the adventure.
Think of the Maltese Falcon, or the Pelican Brief; something that's really important yet anyone who gets their hands on it winds up dead.
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Artifacts are plot devices, not treasure. They don't fit on the WBL chart. Introducing one at any level has significant consequences around which entire campaign plots can be developed.
I use them liberally in some campaigns and sparingly or not at all in others; it just depends on the campaign.
What level was Bilbo (and later Frodo) when he acquired the One Ring? In those cases, it was far better that the bearer was a mere low-level hobbit rather than a mighty wizard. Why? Plot.
Basically, level isn't exactly irrelevant, but there is no rule of thumb that can be relied on other than "think carefully of the ramifications, and make sure there's a reason to introduce it".