Adventure Paths are campaigns spread over a series of 6 books. They start at level 1 and end in the teens (some higher, some lower).
The Chronicles line was renamed Campaign Setting. It's mostly GM-focused information around places, people, races, and organizations in Golarion.
Player Companions are shorter books intended for players. They also deal with places, people, races, and organizations in Golarion, but with less spoileriffic detail.
Pathfinder Society Scenarios are short adventures used in Organized Play. They're also good for short adventures in home games. They assume the players are members of the in-universe Pathfinder Society, a sort of hierarchical organization of treasure-hunters.
There are also Modules. The older ones are adventures shorter than an Adventure Path but longer than a Society Scenario. They're meant for PCs of certain levels and are usually short enough that they PCs won't level up during the course of the adventure.
The new ones (right now, only The Dragon's Demand, but all new ones coming out after that) are longer, sort of mini-Adventure Paths. PCs are meant to start at the level listed on the module, but will level up at least once in the course of the adventure, afaik. (The Dragon's Demand, I believe, is levels 1 through 6, but modules with a higher starting level will likely cover less ground.)
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Also, as you're in the Beginner Box forum, there are adventures written specifically for Beginner Box rules, albeit mostly by third-party publishers.